Drugs that act intracellularly generally enter cells by diffusion. Most drugs are small molecules because they have the ability to diffuse across plasma membranes or organelle membranes to reach their site of action. To increase the bioavailability of a drug, often small molecules must be modified and/or formulated for greater solubility and/or permeability, depending on route of administration. Even small diffusible drugs may not be efficacious at their site of action. For example, multidrug resistance (MDR) may be present, which results in active efflux of drugs that enter cells with MDR. MDR often occurs in cancer cells.
In contrast to small molecules, high molecular weight compounds and polymer drugs, such as polynucleotides, polypeptides, and other macromolecules have little to no ability to diffuse across membranes. High molecular weight material is generally internalized by endocytosis. The addition of affinity binding partners to high molecular weight material can direct the high molecular weight compound to specific cells, and thereby result in increased selective uptake. However, once endocytosed, the material still remains separated from the cellular cytoplasm by a biological membrane.
Endocytosed material is often delivered to the lysosome, where material sensitive to lysosomal enzymes is quickly degraded if steps are not taken to protect its breakdown or to facilitate escape from the lysosome. Delivery of high molecular weight compounds to their site of action at effective levels is a problem. It is therefore desirable to improve delivery to a desired subcellular compartment.
One of the first cellular trafficking signals identified was the endoplasmic reticulum (ER) retention signal, KDEL, which prevents secretion of proteins routed to the endoplasmic reticulum. When this signal is expressed toward the carboxy terminus in proteins that are normally secreted, these proteins are retained in the endoplasmic reticulum and not secreted (Munro and Pelham, Cell 1987, 48:899-907).
Endogenous and exogenous proteins have varying targeting domains within their primary sequence. Such proteins include those described in Andersson, et al. 1999 J Biol Chem 274:15080-4, Cocquerel, et al. 1999 J Virol 73:2641-9, Fons, et al. 2003 J Cell Biol 160:529-39, Gabathuler, et al. 1990 J Cell Biol 111:1803-10, Honsho, et al. 1998 J Biol Chem 273:20860-6, Ma, et al. 2002 J Biol Chem 277:27328-36, Mitoma, et al. 1992 Embo J 11:4197-203, Mziaut, et al. 1999 J Biol Chem 274:14122-9, Parker, et al. 2004 J Biol Chem 279:23797-805, Pottekat, et al. 2004 J Biol Chem 279:15743-51, Ren, et al. 2003 J Biol Chem 278:52700-9, Szczesna-Skorupa, et al. 2001 J Biol Chem 276:45009-14, Vainauskas, et al. 2005 J Biol Chem 280:16402-9, Watanabe, et al. 1996 J Biol Chem 271:26868-75, Zarei, et al. 2004 Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 101:10072-7, and Zarei, et al. 2001 J Biol Chem 276:16232-9.
An aspect of the invention is to provide novel monomeric and novel multimeric endoplasmic reticulum localization signals by modifying one or more proteins that naturally locate to the endoplasmic reticulum by truncation or by amino acid substitution. Truncations, amino acid substututions, and other modifications of known ER-locating proteins are made to minimize endogenous biological activities other than localization. In general, the invention relates to cellular localization signals. More specifically, the invention relates to endoplasmic reticulum localization signals in monomeric or multimeric form. The multimers may be homomultimers or heteromultimers. Multimers are made to exploit cooperation and synergism among individual signals in order to create a chimeric localization signal with a strength and/or performance greater than the constituent individual parts. The monomers and multimers are utilized as research tools or are linked to therapeutics. Disclosed are methods of making and using polypeptides and modified polypeptides as signals to localize therapeutics, experimental compounds, peptides, proteins and/or other macromolecules to the endoplasmic reticulum and contiguous structures of eukaryotic cells. The polypeptides of the invention optionally include linkage to reporters, epitopes and/or other experimental or therapeutic molecules. The invention also encompasses polynucleotides encoding the localization signals and vectors comprising these polynucleotides.